use of force

Reflecting on major changes in the use of force in international relations, Holsti (2016) records the common understanding that inter-state wars have become less frequent in recent decades. “Aggression, a secretly planned, unprovoked war of choice, usually with a staged ‘incident’ or some ‘intolerable’ condition as a pretext, remains a relatively rare event in international life.” He also highlights how, in stark contrast to previous centuries, territorial conquest resulting from the use of force has effectively become obsolete and almost unseen after 1945.